‘I am more than just an athlete’: Psychological safety and negative coaching in aesthetic sports

This article is based on a study conducted at the University of Surrey's School of Psychology, representing new comprehensive research to examine psychological safety and negative coaching specifically in aesthetic sports. Twenty elite athletes from dance, figure skating, and gymnastics were interviewed to understand their lived experiences of psychological safety and different coaching behaviours. This research addresses a critical gap in sport psychology literature and seeks to inform athletes, coaches, sporting organisations and policy makers on the importance of psychological safety in this unique sporting context. The findings provide evidence-based guidance for coaches and organisations committed to creating environments where athletes and dancers can achieve excellence while maintaining their wellbeing.

Research reference: Palmer, N. & de Cruz, N. (2025). Psychological Safety and the Influence of Negative Coaching on the Wellbeing of Elite Athletes in Aesthetic Sports, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Surrey, DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13201.34408

Psychological safety and high-quality coach-athlete relationships are crucial for athlete wellbeing and optimal performance. Yet psychological safety remains an immature area of research in sport psychology compared to other well-established concepts.

Despite increased efforts to safeguard athletes, abuse remains systemic. The British Gymnastics scandal exemplifies this (Whyte Report, 2022). According to the US Centre for SafeSport, psychological harm affects 50–70% of young athletes internationally, exceeding physical and sexual harm rates. This harm is often normalised as "just part of training," falling outside current UK legal boundaries, yet its impact can be detrimental to athlete wellbeing.

In aesthetic sports, which includes dance, figure skating and gymnastics, the risk of psychological unsafety is particularly high due to performances being judged on skill, artistry and appearance. These are 'young' sports meaning entry typically starts at age 2-3, elite level is achieved around 12 years old, and athletes often retire in early adulthood. Training hours are intensive, with athletes spending more time with coaches than family. This dependence, combined with young ages, creates increased risk for power imbalances and harmful coaching behaviours, which young athletes may not recognise due to lack of awareness and cognitive maturity.

Unfortunately, media reports of abuse surpass existing research in aesthetic sports. Until now, current research remained limited, with no studies examining the influence of psychological unsafety and negative coaching.

What is psychological safety and why is it important for dance?

Psychological safety, originally from organisational psychology, has entered sport literature but lacks conceptual clarity when applied to sport. Current research in sport psychology defines it as 'the perception that one is protected from, or unlikely to be at risk of, psychological harm in sport.' Practically, it means dancers can feel safe in their environment, comfortable raising concerns or taking risks, and easily communicate with teachers and peers without fear of repercussions, punishment or rejection.

Importantly, psychological safety is distinct from safeguarding. Safeguarding represents protective measures implemented by organisations, whereas psychological safety stems from athletes' subjective experiences. One can feel psychologically unsafe despite existing safeguarding frameworks, as illustrated by athletes' accounts in this research. While safeguarding measures are crucial, psychological safety must be fostered at each level of a dancer's ecosystem and embedded in all actions and behaviours.

What the research revealed

This research examined how psychological safety and negative coaching was experienced by elite athletes in aesthetic sports. Results highlighted four main themes:

• The Spectrum of Coaching Behaviours: The coach-athlete relationship exists on a spectrum. Supportive coaching fostered trust, motivation, resilience, and respect, with many athletes likening coaches to family figures. Fear-based coaching relied on humiliation, control, and body shaming, eroding confidence and fostering fear.

• Outcomes for Wellbeing & Performance: Supportive environments nurtured resilience and improved performance while maintaining enjoyment. Fear-based coaching sometimes produced short-term results but at high cost: disordered eating, demotivation, and early dropout.

• The Role of Support Systems: Where strong support networks existed, including family, peers, mental health professionals, athletes coped better with challenges and fostered better resilience. Where support was absent, athletes remained vulnerable, enduring harmful behaviours without safe reporting routes.

• Immediate and Long-Term Consequences: Effects were both immediate and lasting. Many athletes resorted to harmful coping strategies like disordered eating, self-harm, or emotional suppression. Others carried the impact of derogatory comments well into adult life. Yet where coaches created safe environments, athletes retained positive lessons: resilience, self belief, and values serving them long after competitive sport.

A unique cultural environment which leaves athletes vulnerable

Aesthetic sport athletes are particularly vulnerable due to intersecting risks: coach-athlete power imbalances, lack of effective support systems, performance-driven funding models and, crucially, normalisation of harmful practices disguised as 'paying the price of success.'

Harm is rarely the fault of 'few bad actors' but rather a systemic issue embedded in aesthetic sport culture. Key cultural problems include:

• "Winning at all costs" mentality justifying harmful behaviours

• Lack of compulsory safeguarding, teacher training, and unified regulatory bodies

• Body scrutiny, weigh-ins, controlling food practices leading to poor body image and disordered eating

• Early sexualisation through costumes and choreography

• Culture of silence where dancers fear speaking out

• Early specialisation limiting awareness to identify abnormal behaviours

What does this mean practically?

Despite safeguarding frameworks, abuse persists. This research found that ensuring psychological safety requires aesthetic sport environments to adopt athlete-centred approaches, adapting actions and behaviours based on athletes' needs. Additionally, athlete thriving which combines performance and wellbeing equally as success measures, must also be prioritised at each ecosystem level and act as the foundation of all actions.

For Dance Teachers:

• Respect dancers as whole individuals, not just performers

• Communicate with empathy; provide constructive, specific and supportive feedback

• Provide unconditional support regardless of performance

• Be mindful of body-related comments (even indirect or implicit comments). Focus on health, strength and function rather than appearance

• Encourage open dialogue where students feel comfortable raising concerns without fear

• Invest in education: take safeguarding and psychological safety training seriously. Reflect on your coaching regularly

For Organisations and Regulatory Bodies:

• Embed safeguarding policies explicitly covering psychological safety

• Provide independent, confidential reporting structures

• Provide mental health and wellbeing support alongside physical health provisions

• Train teachers/coaches on psychological safety, nutrition, positive coaching behaviours and safeguarding

• Train athletes on normal vs. abnormal behaviours, effective coping mechanisms and help-seeking behaviours

Why this matters now

The research makes it clear that psychological safety is not optional. It is a prerequisite for wellbeing, performance, and long-term development. Thriving dancers are produced through respect, empathy, and holistic support, not fear. Without prioritising psychological safety, the 'winning at all costs' mentality will persist and young dancers will continue enduring abuses of power in environments meant to support them.

The future of dance depends on this shift. Behind the sparkle of performance, every dancer deserves to feel safe, respected, and supported. When psychological safety is prioritised, dancers are not only healthier and happier—they are freer to shine at their very best.

Is Your Dance Environment Psychologically Safe?

Warning Signs Checklist

Red Flags - Seek Help If You Notice:

Behavioural Changes in Dancers:

□ Withdrawal from friends, family, or previously enjoyed activities

□ Sudden changes in eating patterns or relationship with food

□ Increased anxiety before classes or competitions

□ Loss of confidence or self-worth

□ Physical symptoms without medical cause (headaches, stomach aches)

□ Self-harm behaviours or concerning coping strategies

□ Fear of making mistakes or asking questions

Concerning Teaching Practices:

□ Public humiliation or body shaming

□ Withholding attention, support, or feedback as punishment

□ Inappropriate physical contact or boundary violations

□ Controlling food intake or commenting on weight/appearance

□ Forcing training through injury against medical advice

□ Creating environments of fear rather than growth

□ Discouraging questions or open communication

Environmental Red Flags:

□ Culture of silence where concerns aren't addressed

□ Lack of clear reporting procedures

□ Coaches/teachers held above accountability

□ Normalisation of harmful behaviours as "necessary for success"

□ Absence of support systems or mental health resources

□ Competition prioritised over dancer wellbeing